Early History of Computers (1937 - 1951) P.J. Drongowski References Jean-Loup Baer, Computer Systems Architecture, Computer Science Press, 1980. D. Siewiorek, C.G. Bell and A. Newell, Computer Structures: Readings and Examples, McGraw-Hill, 1982 (2nd edition) Bit by Bit, Stan Augarten, Ticknor & Fields, 1984 The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, Harman H. Goldstine, Princeton University Press, 1972 Fall 1937 Who: George Stibitz Org: Bell Labs (New York) Tech: Binary relay logic What: - Constructed addition, subtraction, multiplication, division circuits. - Battery driven. Input: Switches. Output: Lights. 1938 Who: Claude Shannon Org: MIT What: - Paper on application of symbolic logic to relay circuits. - Based on MS thesis at MIT. Oct 1938 Who: Stibitz and Samuel B. Williams Org: Bell Labs Machine: Model I Complex Number Calculator Tech: Binary relay logic Cost: $20,000 Application: Complex algebraic equations for filter & amplifier design. Physical: - Two panels of 400-450 relays each. Speed: - Add 0.1s - Multiply 60s I/O: - Modified Teletype. - Remote access to Model I via phone lines. Deficiencies: - Not programmable (no conditional jumps.) - Fixed repertoire of operations. - Did not have clearly defined memory, CPU and control units. 1946 Who: Stibitz and Williams Org: Bell Labs Machine: Model V General Purpose Calculator Tech: Binary relay logic Cost: $500,000 Programming: Via paper tape. Structural: - Small memory. - Distinct memory, CPU and control units. Jan 1943 Who: Howard Aiken Org: Harvard University Machine: Mark I Tech: Electromechanical Application: Calculation of mathematical tables Cost: $500,000 Input: Paper tape Output: Punch cards Structural: - 72 accumulators. Physical: - 8 feet tall, 51 feet long, 5 tons. - 750,000 components. Programming: - Not programmable. - Electric motor turned shaft that ran length of the machine. Speed: - Multiply two 23-digit decimal numbers in 3 seconds. Firing table problem. Org: Army Ballistic Research Lab (BRL) Aiming artillery weapon - Must have right direction and barrel angle. Range, altitude, air temperature and wind speed are important factors. Store trajectories in tables for easy lookup. 2,000 - 4,000 trajectories needed for each projectile and gun. Human computer needed 3 days to calculate one trajectory. By 1943, BRL was dangerously behind schedule. Aug 1942 Who: John W. Mauchly Project personnel: John Brainerd (Project supervisor) J. Presper Eckert Jr. (Chief engineer) Herman H. Goldstine (BRL liason) Org: Moore School at Univ. of Pennsylvania Machine: ENIAC Proposed: Aug 1942 Revised proposal: March 1943 Funded: June 1943 Completed: November 1945 Tech: - Electron vacuum tube - 100 KHz clock rate Cost: $500,000 (200% cost over run) Application: - Trajectory firing tables - H-bomb calculations Structural: - Initiating unit (start/stop) - Master programmer - Cycling unit (clock) - Multiplier - Divider/square root unit - 20 accumulators + 10 decade ring counters + About 200+ tubes per accumulator + Add, subtract and store a ten digit decimal number - 3 function tables for mathematical constants I/O: Punch cards Programming: - Program controlled calculator rather than true computer. - Switches and cables. Physical: - 40 panels arranged in a horseshoe. - 17,468 tubes, 1,500 relays, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors. - 8 feet high, 80 feet long, 30 tons. - Consumed 174,000 watts. Control: - Central clock. - Master programmer sends pulse to start operation. - Waits for done signal then goes to next step. Speed: - 5000 additions per second. - 333 multiplications per second. 1941 Who: John V. Atanasoff Org: Iowa State College Machine: ABC Tech: Electron vacuum tube Cost: About $7,000 I/O: Punch cards (manual feed) Clock rate: 60 Hz Programming: - 50-bit binary arithmetic. Structural: - 210 tube adder/subtracter unit. Memory: Rotating drum (30 50-bit numbers per drum) Speed: - Add two 50-bit numbers per second Stored program computer concept - Mechanical control is too slow for electronic storage and arithmetic. - Should data and instructions be stored in separate memory units, or the same memory? - Wiring does not have to be altered to program the machine. - The computer can modify its instructions. - Library of functions can be stored in memory for rapid recall. - Memory can be dynamically allocated to program or data. - Stored program concept eventually led to assemblers and compilers. Oct 1944 Who: Eckert, Mauchly, von Neumann Org: Machine: EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) Completed: 1952 Tech: Electron vacuum tube Cost: $105,000 Application: - Calculations for nuclear weapon design. Clock rate: Structural: - Central control unit. - Central processor unit (arithmetic/logical operations) - Serial arithmetic (44-bit memory word) - Random access, read/write memory I/O: Programming: - Stored program computer Physical: Control: Speed: 1937 Who: Alan Turing Org: Cambridge What: - Paper "On Computable Numbers." - Defined notion of a Turing tape machine. - Used to disprove Hilberts Entscheidungsproblem in logic. - Proof of the undecidability of logic. December 1943 Who: Alan Turing and others Org: Bletchley Park Machine: Colossus Tech: Electron vacuum tube Application: Code breaking (Enigma) Structural: - Five matching processors. I/O: Five punch tape readers Physical: - 2,400 tubes. - 5 tall panels. Speed: - 5,000 characters per second (each processor.) - 25,000 characters per second for all five processors operating in parallel. Mid-1946 Who: Max Newman Org: Manchester University Machine: Manchester Mark I Completed: June 1948 Tech: Vacuum tube Application: Prototype computer Memory: - Cathode ray tubes - 1024 or 2048 bit capacity I/O: Switches and CRT display. Who: John von Neumann Org: Institute for Advanced Studies Machine: IAS Tech: Vacuum tube Cost: Application: Numerical mathematics Clock rate: Structural: Memory: - Cathode ray storage tube - 25 usec access time Physical: - 2,000 tubes Control: - Central control unit Speed: - Multiplication 600 usec Mercury delay line memory - Crystal transducers at either end of tube filled with mercury - Signals are periodically regenerated - Disadvantages: slow, hard to make, expensive - Primary advantage: Very reliable June 1949 Who: Max Newman Org: Cambridge Machine: EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer) Tech: Vacuum tube Application: Nuclear weapon design Memory: Mercury delay line August 1949 Who: Eckert and Mauchly Org: Remington Rand Machine: BINAC Tech: Vacuum tube Cost: $278,000 Application: Airborne computer (Air Force sponsorship) Clock rate: Structural: - Two serial processors operating in tandem - One machine could take over if the other machine failed Memory: - Delay line - 512 31-bit words Physical: - 5 feet tall, 4 feet long, 1 foot deep - 700 tubes Speed: - 3500 additions/sec - 1000 multiplications/sec March 1951 Who: Eckert and Mauchly Org: Remington Rand Machine: UNIVAC (First commercial computer) Tech: Vacuum tube Cost: Application: Business and scientific computation Clock rate: 2.25 MHz Structural: Memory: - Delay line - 12,000 digits or characters I/O: Punch cards Secondary memory: Magnetic tape Programming: - 12-digit decimal numbers - Alphanumeric characters Physical: - 14.5 feet long, 7.5 feet deep, 9 feet high - 5000 tubes Speed: - Addition 120 usec - Multiplication 1800 usec Just for fun - Atari 800XL benchmark - $120 (1985 retail price) - 64K bytes of memory, 6502 processor (3.5 MHz clock) - 344 8-decimal digit multiplies per second Copyright (c) 1986 Paul J. Drongowski